Preface

1. A Brief History of Government’s References to God
“In God We Trust”
The Pledge and “Under God”
Religion and the Early Federal Government
American Civil Religion

2. Religion, the Constitution, and the Supreme Court
No Religious Tests
The Nonestablishment Clause
The Free Exercise Clause
The Free Speech Clause
Separationist and Accommodationist Ideals
Neutrality
The Lemon Test
The Endorsement Test
The Reasonable or Objective Observer
The Coercion Test
Acknowledgments of Our Religious Heritage
Legal Judgment
The Constitution and the Supreme Court

3. God-References and the Courts
Supreme Court Dicta
State Court Decisions
Lower Federal Court Decisions
Newdow v. the United States Congress

4. Assessing the Courts’ Arguments
Do the God-References Have Religious Meaning?
Have God-References Lost Their Religious Nature?
Affirmations, Creeds, and Entailed Beliefs
Ceremonial Deism
Historical Acknowledgments
Religious Symbolism and the Supreme Court
Religious Symbolism and Endorsement
Conclusion

5. A Better Approach for Upholding Government References to God
Religion Versus Religious Institutions
Sectarian and Nonsectarian Symbols
The Threshold Question
The Problem of Any Religious Symbols
Limitations on Symbolic Aid to Religion
Use of Other Religious Symbols
Government God-References in Public Schools
The Drawbacks to This Approach
Conclusion

Church-State Cases Cited

References and Other Works

Index