Research Methods in Anthropology
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Research Methods in Anthropology
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
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Description
Research Methods in Anthropology is the field's classic, celebrated introduction-and the most comprehensive survey available-of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Written in Russell Bernard's unmistakable conversational style, this guide has launched tens of thousands of students into fieldwork with a combination of rigorous methodology, wry humor, and commonsense advice. The book's tripart organization covers the three major components of research (research design, data collection, and data analysis) in an accessible, step-by-step manner that eases students into developing their anthropological mindsets. Boldfaced key terms introduce students to the vocabulary of social research, boxes expand on ideas covered in the text, and an appendix on “Resources for Social Researchers” provides a comprehensive collection of student aids for the code of ethics, statistics packages, research journals, and area files.
New to the Seventh Edition:
- New Chapter 6, “Ethics and the Conduct of Anthropology” walks students through the challenges anthropologists face in research and how to deal with them
- New Chapter 25, “On Writing Up” introduces the basics of getting articles published in peer-reviewed journals
- New discussion of “The Art of Proposal Writing” teaches students to write persuasively about the importance, rigor, and creativity of their proposed work
- Expanded Chapters 11 and 12, “Collecting Cultural Domain Data” and “Collecting Social Network Data” offer practical skills in data collection for both cutting-edge and classic anthropological methods
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Anthropology and the Social Sciences
Introduction
Methods Belong to All of Us
The Many Meanings of Method
Rationalism, Empiricism, and Morality
The Norms of Science
The Development of Science-From Democritus to Newton
Exploration, Printing, and Modern Science
Science, Money, and War
The Development of Social Science-From Newton to Rousseau
Early Positivism: Quételet, Saint-Simon, Comte
Great Failures in Science and Social Science
The Varieties of Positivism
Later Positivism: The Vienna Circle
Instrumental Positivism
The Reaction against Positivism
And Finally … The Qualitative/Quantitative Split
Chapter 2: The Foundations of Social Research
Introduction
Variables: The Joy of Measurement
Measurement and Concepts
Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Levels of Measurement
Reliability, Validity, Accuracy, and Precision
Determining Validity
Units of Analysis
Chapter 3: Preparing for Research
Introduction-Setting Things Up
The Ideal Research Process
A Realistic Approach
Alternative Paradigms for Building Theories
Choosing a Research Problem: A Guide to Research Topics, Anyway
Meta-analysis
Chapter 4: Research Design
Introduction: What Is Research Design?
Cause and Effect
Three Decisions in Research Design
The Eight Types of Research Design
The Components of a Research Design
The Art of Proposal Writing
How to Develop Your Proposal with Mentors and Peers
Chapter 5: Experiments and Experimental Thinking
Introduction
Kinds of Confounds: Threats to Internal Validity
Controlling for Threats to Validity
Field Experiments
Are Field Experiments Ethical?
Thought Experiments
Chapter 6: Ethics and the Conduct of Anthropology
Introduction
I: Choosing a Research Problem
II: Making Our Work Less Extractive and Exploitative
Participatory and Action Research
III: Getting Informed Consent
How to Get Your IRB Proposal Approved
IV: Maintaining Confidentiality
Chapter 7: Probability Sampling
Introduction: What Are Samples and Why Do We Need Them?
Sampling Frames
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling and Complex Sampling Designs
Maximizing Between-group Variance: The Wichita Study
How Big Should a Sample Be?
The Normal Distribution and z-scores
The Central Limit Theorem
The Standard Error and Confidence Intervals
Calculating Sample Size for Estimating Means
Calculating Sample Size for Estimating Proportions
Chapter 8: Nonprobability Sampling
Introduction: Reasons to Use a Nonprobability Sample
Four Common and Two Uncommon Types of Nonprobability Samples
Minimum Sizes for Different Types of Nonprobability Samples
Deciding on a Nonprobability Sampling Method and Sample Size
And Finally . . .
Chapter 9: Interviewing and Focus Groups
Introduction-The Big Picture
Interview Control
Unstructured Interviewing
Probing
Learning to Interview
Positionality and Presentation of Self
Using a Voice Recorder
Using Visual Cues, Like Photos in Interviews
Focus Groups
Response Effects
Informant/Respondent Accuracy
Chapter 10: Questionnaires
Introduction
Personal, Face-to-face Interviews
Telephone Interviews
Self-administered Questionnaires
When to Use What
Working with Interviewers
Closed- versus Open-ended Questions
Fourteen Rules for Question Wording and Format
Pretesting and Learning from Mistakes
Translation and Back Translation
The Response Rate Problem
Improving Response Rates: The Legacy of Dillman's Total Design Method
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies
Some Specialized Survey Methods
And Finally
Chapter 11: Collecting Cultural Domain Data
Introduction
It Started with the Domain of Kinship
Free Listing
The True–False/Yes–No and Sentence Frame Techniques
Triad Tests
Free Pile Sorts
Rankings and Paired Comparisons
Chapter 12: Collecting Social Network Data
Introduction-What Is Social Network Analysis?
Anthropology and Social Network Analysis
Whole Networks
Personal Networks
Doing Network Analysis
Collecting Whole (Sociocentric) Network Data
Methods for Finding Network Ties
Collecting Personal (Egocentric) Network Data
Reducing Respondent Burden
Chapter 13: Scales and Scaling
Introduction
Single-question Scales
Indexes
Guttman Scales
Some Examples of a Guttman Scale
Likert Scales
Item Analysis
Testing for Unidimensionality with Factor Analysis
The Semantic Differential
Chapter 14: Participant Observation
Introduction
What Is Participant Observation?
The Stages of Participant Observation
Entering the Field
Fieldwork Roles
The Skills of a Participant Observer
Building Explicit Awareness
Ethically Practicing the Darker Arts of Fieldwork
Objectivity
Studying Your Own Culture
Rapid Assessment
Validity-Again
Surviving Fieldwork
Chapter 15: Field Notes and Data Management
Introduction
How to Write Field Notes
Field Notes
Coding Field Notes
Analyzing Field Notes
Database Management
Chapter 16: Direct Observation
Introduction
CM-Continuous Monitoring
Coding Schemes
Spot Sampling and Time Allocation Studies
Experience Sampling (ES) and Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)
Unobtrusive Observation
Indirect Observation
Archival Research
Chapter 17: Introduction to Data Analysis
Introduction: Qualitative, Quantitative
Data Matrices
Presenting Results in Matrices and Tables
Presenting Results: Causal Flow Charts
Chapter 18: Analyzing Cultural Domain Data
Introduction
Analyzing Free Lists
Analyzing Pile Sort Data
How MDS Works
Cluster Analysis and Pile Sort Data
How Cluster Analysis Works
A Real Research Example: Green Behavior and Electric Cars in the United States
Analyzing Triad Data
Analyzing Sentence Frames
Analyzing Paired Comparisons
Cultural Consensus Analysis
Running Consensus Analysis
Cultural Consonance
Cultural Domains and Folk Taxonomies
Chapter 19: Analyzing Network Data
Introduction: A Bit More About Matrices
Analyzing Social Network Data
Analyzing Whole (Sociocentric) Network Data
Analyzing Personal (Egocentric) Network Data
“It's Not What You Know, It's Who You Know”
Adding Network Data to the Classic Recipe
Affiliation Matrices
Semantic Networks
Chapter 20: Analyzing Text I: Theme Coding, Grounded Theory, and Content Analysis
Introduction
Overview of Grounded Theory
Content Analysis
Doing Classical Content Analysis
Intercoder Reliability
AI and Text Analysis
HRAF: Cross-cultural Content Analysis
Doing Cross-cultural Text-based Research
Chapter 21: Analyzing Text II: Discourse Analysis
Introduction
Conversation Analysis
Taking Turns in a Jury
Narrative Analysis
Phenomenological Analysis of Narratives
Language in Use
Critical Discourse Analysis: Language and Power
Chapter 22: Text Analysis III: Analytic Logic
Introduction
Ethnographic Decision Models (EDM)
Representing Complicated Models with Tables and IF?THEN Charts
Schema Analysis
Three Examples of Schema Analysis
Analytic Induction/Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Qualitative Comparative Analysis-QCA
And Finally . . .
Chapter 23: Univariate and Bivariate Analysis
Introduction
Univariate Analysis: Raw Data
Frequency Distributions
Measures of Central Tendency
Visualizing Data
Measures of Variation I: Range and Interquartile Range
Measures of Variation II: Variance and the Standard Deviation
The Logic of Hypothesis Testing
So, What About the Mean of FEMILLIT?
More About z-Scores
The Univariate Chi-square Test
Testing Relations: Bivariate Analysis
The t-Test: Comparing Two Means
ANOVA-Analysis of Variance
Examples of ANOVA
Visualizing the Direction and Shape of Covariations
Crosstabs of Nominal Variables
Correlation and Cause: Antecedent and Intervening Variables
Chi-square for Bivariate Comparisons
Testing the Association Between Ordinal Variables
What to Use for Nominal and Ordinal Variables
Correlation: The Powerhouse Statistic for Covariation
Spearman's r
Pearson's r
Regression
How Regression Works
Testing the Significance of r
Nonlinear Relations
Statistical Significance, the Shotgun Approach, and Other Issues
Chapter 24: Multivariate Analysis
Introduction
Elaboration: Controlling for Independent Variables
Car Wrecks and Teenage Births
The Multiple Regression Equation
Unraveling the Teenage-birth-and-motor-vehicle-death Puzzle
Path Analysis
Factor Analysis
Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA)
And Finally . . .
Chapter 25: On Writing Up
Introduction
Getting Your Article Published
Appendix A: Table of Areas under a Normal Curve
Appendix B: Student's t Distribution
Appendix C: Chi-square Distribution Table
Appendix D: F Table for the .05 Level of Significance
Appendix E: Resources for Fieldworkers
References
Introduction
Methods Belong to All of Us
The Many Meanings of Method
Rationalism, Empiricism, and Morality
The Norms of Science
The Development of Science-From Democritus to Newton
Exploration, Printing, and Modern Science
Science, Money, and War
The Development of Social Science-From Newton to Rousseau
Early Positivism: Quételet, Saint-Simon, Comte
Great Failures in Science and Social Science
The Varieties of Positivism
Later Positivism: The Vienna Circle
Instrumental Positivism
The Reaction against Positivism
And Finally … The Qualitative/Quantitative Split
Chapter 2: The Foundations of Social Research
Introduction
Variables: The Joy of Measurement
Measurement and Concepts
Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Conceptual Definitions
Operational Definitions
Levels of Measurement
Reliability, Validity, Accuracy, and Precision
Determining Validity
Units of Analysis
Chapter 3: Preparing for Research
Introduction-Setting Things Up
The Ideal Research Process
A Realistic Approach
Alternative Paradigms for Building Theories
Choosing a Research Problem: A Guide to Research Topics, Anyway
Meta-analysis
Chapter 4: Research Design
Introduction: What Is Research Design?
Cause and Effect
Three Decisions in Research Design
The Eight Types of Research Design
The Components of a Research Design
The Art of Proposal Writing
How to Develop Your Proposal with Mentors and Peers
Chapter 5: Experiments and Experimental Thinking
Introduction
Kinds of Confounds: Threats to Internal Validity
Controlling for Threats to Validity
Field Experiments
Are Field Experiments Ethical?
Thought Experiments
Chapter 6: Ethics and the Conduct of Anthropology
Introduction
I: Choosing a Research Problem
II: Making Our Work Less Extractive and Exploitative
Participatory and Action Research
III: Getting Informed Consent
How to Get Your IRB Proposal Approved
IV: Maintaining Confidentiality
Chapter 7: Probability Sampling
Introduction: What Are Samples and Why Do We Need Them?
Sampling Frames
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling and Complex Sampling Designs
Maximizing Between-group Variance: The Wichita Study
How Big Should a Sample Be?
The Normal Distribution and z-scores
The Central Limit Theorem
The Standard Error and Confidence Intervals
Calculating Sample Size for Estimating Means
Calculating Sample Size for Estimating Proportions
Chapter 8: Nonprobability Sampling
Introduction: Reasons to Use a Nonprobability Sample
Four Common and Two Uncommon Types of Nonprobability Samples
Minimum Sizes for Different Types of Nonprobability Samples
Deciding on a Nonprobability Sampling Method and Sample Size
And Finally . . .
Chapter 9: Interviewing and Focus Groups
Introduction-The Big Picture
Interview Control
Unstructured Interviewing
Probing
Learning to Interview
Positionality and Presentation of Self
Using a Voice Recorder
Using Visual Cues, Like Photos in Interviews
Focus Groups
Response Effects
Informant/Respondent Accuracy
Chapter 10: Questionnaires
Introduction
Personal, Face-to-face Interviews
Telephone Interviews
Self-administered Questionnaires
When to Use What
Working with Interviewers
Closed- versus Open-ended Questions
Fourteen Rules for Question Wording and Format
Pretesting and Learning from Mistakes
Translation and Back Translation
The Response Rate Problem
Improving Response Rates: The Legacy of Dillman's Total Design Method
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies
Some Specialized Survey Methods
And Finally
Chapter 11: Collecting Cultural Domain Data
Introduction
It Started with the Domain of Kinship
Free Listing
The True–False/Yes–No and Sentence Frame Techniques
Triad Tests
Free Pile Sorts
Rankings and Paired Comparisons
Chapter 12: Collecting Social Network Data
Introduction-What Is Social Network Analysis?
Anthropology and Social Network Analysis
Whole Networks
Personal Networks
Doing Network Analysis
Collecting Whole (Sociocentric) Network Data
Methods for Finding Network Ties
Collecting Personal (Egocentric) Network Data
Reducing Respondent Burden
Chapter 13: Scales and Scaling
Introduction
Single-question Scales
Indexes
Guttman Scales
Some Examples of a Guttman Scale
Likert Scales
Item Analysis
Testing for Unidimensionality with Factor Analysis
The Semantic Differential
Chapter 14: Participant Observation
Introduction
What Is Participant Observation?
The Stages of Participant Observation
Entering the Field
Fieldwork Roles
The Skills of a Participant Observer
Building Explicit Awareness
Ethically Practicing the Darker Arts of Fieldwork
Objectivity
Studying Your Own Culture
Rapid Assessment
Validity-Again
Surviving Fieldwork
Chapter 15: Field Notes and Data Management
Introduction
How to Write Field Notes
Field Notes
Coding Field Notes
Analyzing Field Notes
Database Management
Chapter 16: Direct Observation
Introduction
CM-Continuous Monitoring
Coding Schemes
Spot Sampling and Time Allocation Studies
Experience Sampling (ES) and Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)
Unobtrusive Observation
Indirect Observation
Archival Research
Chapter 17: Introduction to Data Analysis
Introduction: Qualitative, Quantitative
Data Matrices
Presenting Results in Matrices and Tables
Presenting Results: Causal Flow Charts
Chapter 18: Analyzing Cultural Domain Data
Introduction
Analyzing Free Lists
Analyzing Pile Sort Data
How MDS Works
Cluster Analysis and Pile Sort Data
How Cluster Analysis Works
A Real Research Example: Green Behavior and Electric Cars in the United States
Analyzing Triad Data
Analyzing Sentence Frames
Analyzing Paired Comparisons
Cultural Consensus Analysis
Running Consensus Analysis
Cultural Consonance
Cultural Domains and Folk Taxonomies
Chapter 19: Analyzing Network Data
Introduction: A Bit More About Matrices
Analyzing Social Network Data
Analyzing Whole (Sociocentric) Network Data
Analyzing Personal (Egocentric) Network Data
“It's Not What You Know, It's Who You Know”
Adding Network Data to the Classic Recipe
Affiliation Matrices
Semantic Networks
Chapter 20: Analyzing Text I: Theme Coding, Grounded Theory, and Content Analysis
Introduction
Overview of Grounded Theory
Content Analysis
Doing Classical Content Analysis
Intercoder Reliability
AI and Text Analysis
HRAF: Cross-cultural Content Analysis
Doing Cross-cultural Text-based Research
Chapter 21: Analyzing Text II: Discourse Analysis
Introduction
Conversation Analysis
Taking Turns in a Jury
Narrative Analysis
Phenomenological Analysis of Narratives
Language in Use
Critical Discourse Analysis: Language and Power
Chapter 22: Text Analysis III: Analytic Logic
Introduction
Ethnographic Decision Models (EDM)
Representing Complicated Models with Tables and IF?THEN Charts
Schema Analysis
Three Examples of Schema Analysis
Analytic Induction/Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Qualitative Comparative Analysis-QCA
And Finally . . .
Chapter 23: Univariate and Bivariate Analysis
Introduction
Univariate Analysis: Raw Data
Frequency Distributions
Measures of Central Tendency
Visualizing Data
Measures of Variation I: Range and Interquartile Range
Measures of Variation II: Variance and the Standard Deviation
The Logic of Hypothesis Testing
So, What About the Mean of FEMILLIT?
More About z-Scores
The Univariate Chi-square Test
Testing Relations: Bivariate Analysis
The t-Test: Comparing Two Means
ANOVA-Analysis of Variance
Examples of ANOVA
Visualizing the Direction and Shape of Covariations
Crosstabs of Nominal Variables
Correlation and Cause: Antecedent and Intervening Variables
Chi-square for Bivariate Comparisons
Testing the Association Between Ordinal Variables
What to Use for Nominal and Ordinal Variables
Correlation: The Powerhouse Statistic for Covariation
Spearman's r
Pearson's r
Regression
How Regression Works
Testing the Significance of r
Nonlinear Relations
Statistical Significance, the Shotgun Approach, and Other Issues
Chapter 24: Multivariate Analysis
Introduction
Elaboration: Controlling for Independent Variables
Car Wrecks and Teenage Births
The Multiple Regression Equation
Unraveling the Teenage-birth-and-motor-vehicle-death Puzzle
Path Analysis
Factor Analysis
Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA)
And Finally . . .
Chapter 25: On Writing Up
Introduction
Getting Your Article Published
Appendix A: Table of Areas under a Normal Curve
Appendix B: Student's t Distribution
Appendix C: Chi-square Distribution Table
Appendix D: F Table for the .05 Level of Significance
Appendix E: Resources for Fieldworkers
References
Product details
| Published | Sep 03 2026 |
|---|---|
| Format | Hardback |
| Edition | 7th |
| Extent | 736 |
| ISBN | 9781538190920 |
| Imprint | Bloomsbury Academic |
| Illustrations | 127 bw illustrations, 122 tables |
| Dimensions | 10 x 8 inches |
| Publisher | Bloomsbury Publishing |
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